The energy field theory aims to describe all fundamental interactions and elementary particles within a single, cohesive framework. 

 

Relationship Between Mass-Energy and Quantum Fields

The Origin of Matter

The Big Bang is considered the origin of spacetime and matter. Moments later, the Higgs field settled into its current state, transforming raw energy into the massive particles that shape our universe today.

 

The Origin of Mass

The Higgs field is an invisible energy field that fills the entire universe, which is the source of rest mass to elementary particles such as fermions (like electrons and quarks). While the Higgs field gives inertia mass to elementary particles, it accounts for approximately 1% of the mass of ordinary matter. The remaining 99% of nucleon mass (protons and neutrons) is sourced from the strong nuclear interaction energy, binding quarks together, and the electromagnetic field contributes approximately 0.1% to the mass of nucleons.

 

The Structure of a Proton

Quarks make up protons and neutrons. The primary mass, sourced from the Higgs field are very small. The combined rest mass of the three quarks that make up protons (uud), is approximately 10 Me V/c², and the total mass of a proton is approximately 938 Me V/c². Electrons are lighter, contributing less than 0.1% or 0.511 Me V/c² to the total mass of atoms.

 

Mass - Atoms are the building blocks of matter

Everything with mass is made up of atoms. Atoms are composed of subatomic particles: the nucleus is made up of positively charged protons and neutrons, and the negatively charged electrons which orbit the nucleus. 

 

Elements and Atoms

Elements have a unique number of protons in their atoms. All atoms of a particular element are identical, whereas atoms of a different element have unique or different characteristics. 

 

Formulation of Molecules

Atoms can connect with other atoms to form larger objects called molecules.

 

Atoms and Energy

Atoms contain energy, including the energy stored in electrons, the kinetic energy of their movements, and the nuclear energy within the nucleus.

 

The Speed of Causality - The Universal Constant

The speed of causality in a vacuum is a universal constant meaning it is the same unchanging value for all observers regardless of their own motion and represents the absolute speed limit for anything with mass or energy in space. As an object approaches the speed of causality, its mass increases infinitely, and time slows down, requiring energy to further accelerate. 

 

E = mc² Explained - Speed of Causality Squared

Mass and energy are interchangeable forms of the same thing. The speed of causality squared is the conversion factor, converting mass (kg) into energy (joules) and energy into mass, showing that mass is a concentrated form of energy. This constant value ensures the equation's unit's balance.

In Einstein's energy equation E = mc², the speed of causality squared (c²) works as a multiplier that quantifies the energy equivalent of mass. 

According to E = mc², energy has mass. The binding energy holds an atom together (strong interaction), the energy within a photon (electromagnetism), and the energy of radioactive decay (weak interaction) all contribute to the stress-energy tensor on the right side of the energy equation.

 

Understanding E = mc²

E: represents energy measured in joules.

m: represents mass (amount of matter) measured in kilograms.

c: represents the speed at which photons travel in a vacuum, 299,792,458 meters per second. Because photons carry energy and momentum, they act as a source of gravity under general relativity’s stress-energy tensor, meaning they theoretically produce a tiny gravitational field.

c² represents the speed of causality squared, which quantifies the scale of conversation, meaning a very small amount of mass can be converted into a very large amount of energy, and a very small amount of energy can be converted into a very large amount of mass, such as high energy photons (like gamma rays) can collide and convert particle-antiparticle pairs. For example, an electron and a position.

 

Standard Model

According to the Standard Model of particle physics, there are 17 known elementary particles. They are classified into two primary categories based on their quantum properties (specifically their spin and their behavior in spacetime): matter particles (fermions) and force carrying particles (bosons), plus Higgs boson.

 

Quarks (Matter)

Quarks combine to form composite particles like protons and neutrons. There are six types, split into three generations.

 

First Generation

First-generation particles make up all stable matter in the universe, such as atoms.

• Up quark: A fundamental building block with a fractional positive charge, found inside protons and neutrons.
• Down quark: A fundamental building block with a fractional negative charge, also found inside protons and neutrons.
• Electron: A stable, negatively charged particle that surrounds the atomic nuclei.
• Electron neutrino: A tiny, electrically neutral particle that rarely interacts with matter.

 

Second Generation

Second-generation particles are heavier and unstable, and they decay into first-generation particles. They are produced in high-energy environments like cosmic rays or particle accelerators.

• Charm quark: A heavier positive-charge quark that decays into lighter quarks.
• Strange quark: A heavier negative-charge quark with a longer lifetime than other heavier quarks.
• Muon: A heavier, unstable version of the electron.
• Muon neutrino: A neutral lepton associated with the muon.

 

Third Generation

Third-generation particles are the heaviest and least stable, decaying quickly into lighter generations.

• Top quark: The most massive elementary particle in the Standard Model.
• Bottom quark: A very heavy quark with a negative charge.
• Tau: The heaviest charged lepton, even more massive that a muon.
• Tau neutrino: A neutral lepton associated with the tau.

 

Leptons (Matter)

Leptons do not experience the strong nuclear interaction because they do not have a color charge. There are six types:

• Charge Leptons: Electrons, muon, and tau.
• Neutral Leptons (neutrinos): Electron neutrino, muon neutrino, and tau neutrino.

 

Gauge Bosons (Force Carriers)

Gauge bosons act as the force carriers for three of the four fundamental interactions:

• Photons: Carries the electromagnetic force, which controls light, electricity, and atomic bonds.
• W and Z bosons: Mediate the weak nuclear force, which triggers radioactive decay like beta decay.
• Gluons: Handle the strong nuclear force, which binds quarks together inside protons and neutrons.

 

Scalar Boson

• Higgs boson is a fundamental elementary particle that confirms the existence of the invisible Higgs field, an invisible energy field that gives mass to fundamental elementary particles like electrons and quarks. It has zero electric charge, no spin, and decays into other particles almost instantly after it is created

 

Summary of General Relativity and Standard Model

Mass-energy governs how spacetime curves, while quantum fields govern the behaviour of mass-energy within spacetime.

 

Relationship Between the Weak, Strong, and Electromagnetic Interactions

Weak Interaction

The weak interaction is responsible for the radioactive decay of subatomic particles and for changing one type of particle into another. It allows quarks to change their type. For example, it can convert a down quark into an up quark, which converts a neutron into a proton. The weak interaction transforms particles flavors (the different varieties of quarks and leptons), frequently converting the kinetic energy of reactions into the mass of new particles. The weak interaction acts as a transformer that changes particles identities, transforming one particle flavor into another. 

 

Beta-Minus Decay

In beta decay processes (specifically beta-minus decay), the weak interaction causes a neutron (ddu quark combination) to convert into a proton (uud), emitting an electron and antineutrino. A down quark (d) in the neutron changes into an up quark (u), transforming udd to uud. This alters the net electrical charge of the nucleus, changing the respective electromagnetic field.

The proton remains in the nucleus, increasing the atomic number (Z) by 1. 

 

Beta-Plus Decay

The weak interaction is the rate-limiting step that enables the formation of deuterium in the proton-proton chain, permitting stellar nucleosynthesis to start, which creates the heavier elements needed for chemistry, and structure of electromagnetic interactions. The resulting atoms consist of nuclei surrounded by electrons, which interact through electromagnetism to form molecules and more complex structures. Quantum tunnelling works alongside the weak force to help protons to overcome Coulomb repulsion and initiate fusion, specifically in context to the sun and stars. 

 

Strong Interaction

The strong interaction is responsible for binding quarks together, mediated by gluons. The strong interaction acts between protons and neutrons to hold the entire atomic nucleus together, overcoming electromagnetic repulsion. It operates at very short distances, usually within the nucleus of the of atoms. In the same way the electromagnetic interaction acts on electric charge, the strong interaction acts on a property called color charge (red, blue and green). The strong interaction holds subatomic particles together to form larger subatomic particles, converting some of their mass into energy.

 

Quantum Chromodynamics

The color charge is the fundamental property of quarks and gluons, which act as the source of the strong interaction. The exchange of gluons between quarks, which carry the color charge, generates the strong interaction. This force binds quarks together to form protons, neutrons, and other hydrons. Quarks carry one of three colors (red, green, or blue) and antiquarks carry one of three anticolors (anti-red, anti-green, or anti-blue).

Gluons carry a combination of a color and a different anticolor charge, which allows them to mediate the strong interaction by changing the color of quarks. There are 8 gluon combinations (red-antigreen, red-antiblue, green-antired, green-antiblue, blue-antired, blue-antigreen, red-antired / green-antigreen combination, and red-antired / green-antigreen / blue / antiblue combination).

 

Electromagnetic Interaction

The electromagnetic interaction affects subatomic particles and other objects that contain electrical charge. The electromagnetic interaction exhibits electromagnetic fields such as magnetic fields, and light. It is the fundamental reason electrons bind to the nucleus and are responsible for the complete structure of the nucleus. Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation, meaning that they are fundamentally the same. Electromagnetism produces speed by accelerating charged particles, primarily through electric and magnetic fields. Electromagnetic waves and radiation consisting of oscillating electric and magnetic fields, travel at the speed of causality.

 

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Radio waves, visible light, ultraviolet light, X-rays, and gamma radiation are all forms of emr that constitute the em spectrum, and the photon is their quantum particle. They are produced by the acceleration of charged particles, including atomic interactions, and electrical circuits.  

• Radio waves are produced by accelerated charged particles, primarily electrons.
• Visible light is produced by electrons releasing energy as photons.
• Ultraviolet light is produced by photons that are emitted when electrons move between orbital states in an atom, such as from a higher orbital state to a lower orbital state.
• X-rays are primarily produced by electrons, which are usually emitted outside the nucleus of an atom.
• Gamma radiation is primarily produced by the photon, emitted from the nucleus of the atom.

 

Electroweak Theory

The electroweak theory (or Weinberg-Salam model) unified the electromagnetic and weak interactions into a single framework, revealing them as different facets of a single force at high energies, such as in the early universe or modern particle colliders. It explains phenomena such as radioactive beta decay and solar nuclear reactions.

In high energies-energy phase, the four gauge bosons of three W’s and one B, are massless and travel at the speed of causality. However, in a low-energy environment, the W and Z bosons are massive and do not travel at the speed of light.

While often referred to as a single force, the electroweak theory does not unite them into a single simple gauge group, but rather a product of two-gauge groups, which combine to produce the photon and W/Z bosons.

 

Energy-Interaction Equation

E (⟹ w) = m (⟹ s, em) x c² Explained - Speed of Electromagnetic Radiation

The electromagnetic and strong interactions (photons for electromagnetic and gluons for strong interaction) propagate and mediate at the speed of causality in a vacuum. The strong and weak interactions propagate through field interactions via the exchange of gauge bosons. The factor c² is fundamentally used in context to both electromagnetic and strong interactions, primarily as the conversion factor between mass and energy in determining the energy scale of force carriers.

 

Understanding E (⟹ w) = m (⟹ s, em) x c²

w: represents the weak interaction. The weak interaction of radioactive decay causes mass-energy conversion. 

s: represents the strong interaction. The strong interaction of binding nucleons causes energy-mass conversion.

em: represents electromagnetic interaction. Electromagnetism defines how electric and magnetic fields behave and interact. The electromagnetic interaction of binding atoms and molecules causes energy-mass conversion. In addition, the electromagnetic interaction cause rest mass to convert into useable energy in the form of light.

emr: represent the propagation of electromagnetic fields through a vacuum. 

c² represents the speed of causality squared. Because both em and strong interactions involve fields that propagate at c and relate to energy-mass equivalence, c² is a universal constant applicable to relativistic descriptions.

 

Relationship Between Spacetime and Gravity

g ⟹ St Explained - Speed of Gravity

Space and time are interwoven complementary facets of a single unified entity known as spacetime. The speed of gravity (the speed at which changes in the gravitational field propagate in a vacuum) is equal to the speed of causality, acting as the conversion factor between space and time, showing that time and space are two components of a unified four-dimensional spacetime. In general relativity g ⟹ St, the speed of gravity acts as the speed of causality (the maximum propagation speed) and a unit conversion factor in Einstein’s gravity.

The speed of causality squared acts as the fundamental conversion factor that ensures the units of mass-energy, and spacetime curvature are balanced. 

 

Space

Spacetime is the geometry of mass-energy and gravity is its curvature.  

The nature of spacetime is a four-dimensional structure, and presence of mass-energy alters its geometry causing objects to naturally follow these curved pathways (geodesics). Mass-energy curves spacetime because the stress-energy tensor (comprising of mass-energy density, momentum, pressure, and stress).

As a conceptual framework, mass-energy is the content and spacetime is the context that dictates how the content behaves. In modern physics they are not entirely separate. Spacetime itself can have energy (vacuum energy / dark energy), and the geometry of spacetime that hold energy, in which mass-energy works in parallel to spacetime.

 

Space Is Made Up Of

• Dark energy, which causes universe expansion. Spacetime itself can have a small amount of energy even in a complete vacuum (dark energy), meaning that even when all matter (atoms, molecules, particles) is removed from a space, the space itself is not truly empty.
• Dark matter, which influences galaxy formation.
• Cosmic microwave background radiation.
• Interstellar gas, dust, and plasma.

 

The Fabric of Spacetime

The fabric of spacetime is a four-dimensional concept, rather than a literal fabric. The fabric represents a unification of three-dimensional space and one-dimensional time, showing a four-dimensional continuum (spacetime continuum). Spacetime acts as a reference system for physical events.

 

Spacetime Misconception

• Spacetime is not a literal fabric, it is an analogy applied to show how spacetime curves.
• The universe is not expanding into a pre-existing space, rather than the fabric itself is growing.

 

Time

The speed of causality dictates how time behaves and connects to space. For non-relativistic (slow-moving) objects, the warping of time is the primary cause of acceleration (weak gravity), not the warping of space. For relativistic objects (close to speed of causality) or black holes, the roles reverse and the warping of space becomes significant (weak gravity).

Time dominates at low speeds; space becomes significant at high speeds. Time runs slower closer to massive objects like earth compared to being at a distance. This is known as gravitational time dilation, where stronger gravitational fields warp spacetime more significantly, causing time to pass more slowly.

  

Gravity

The speed of causality is the speed of gravity, which acts as the universal speed limit for causal information, unifying space and time into a single, four-dimensional framework.

The presence of mass-energy and quantum fields curves spacetime causing a gravitational field, and gravity is its curvature.

The interchangeable equivalence of mass-energy (E = mc²) plays a central role in curving spacetime, causing gravity.

The presence of mass-energy and quantum fields curve spacetime, meaning gravitational acceleration is actual inertial motion (free fall) along geodesics through this curved geometry.

 

Understanding g ⟹ St

S: represents occupied space.  Mass-energy determines the geometric curvature of spacetime, and unaccelerated objects travel along geodesics, which are the straightest possible paths in that curved geometry.

t: represents time. Mass-energy curves spacetime, which causes clocks closer to mass to run slower and distances space geometry; this warped spacetime is what we experience as gravity. This is known as gravitational time dilation.

g: represents the speed of gravity in a vacuum. Gravity is the curvature of spacetime caused by mass and energy. Near a black hole, this curvature becomes extreme, meaning spatial measurements differ significantly from flat space. Time curvature plays a much larger role than spatial curvature in producing gravity on Earth, because of our weak gravitational field.

 

Energy Field Equation

g (⟹ St) ⟹ E (⟹ w) = m (⟹ s, em) x c². Gravity is caused by the geometric curvature of spacetime, which itself is caused by energy. Energy equals mass, where the weak interaction of radioactive decay causes mass-energy conversion; the strong interaction of binding nucleons, mediated by gluons, causes energy-mass conversion; and the electromagnetic interaction of binding atoms and molecules causes energy-mass conversion, and rest mass to convert into light, resulting in a net loss of system mass, multiplied by the square of the speed of causality, which acts as the fundamental conversion factor that quantifies the equivalence of mass and energy; c represents the speed at which massless particles, like photons, travel in a vacuum. Because photons possess both energy and momentum, Einstein's theory of general relativity dictates that they generate their own gravitational field, contributing directly to the warping of spacetime. 

While Newtonian physics dictates that only rest mass creates gravity, general relativity replaces mass with stress-energy tensor as the source of gravitational warping.